Review Of Intensive Farming Systems

Review Of Intensive Farming SystemsThe intensive do engagement systems of developed countries, such as United Kingdom seek to increase yield through what is usu altogethery described by pastoral economists as Best Management Practice (BMP), which involves the nigh efficient intake of all introduces, including plant foods, herbicides, seed varieties, and precision inelegant techniques (Goulding et al, 2008). (BMP) Fertilizers have been pennyral to this approach, which has resulted in a tremendous increase in productivity over that last 40 geezerhood. For example, the efficient use of improved fertilisers, combined with parvenue varieties of wheat and the winning use of work protection chemicals, has increased grain yields from 3 lashings per hect atomic number 18 to approximately 10 to 11 tons per hect be today (Goulding et al, 2008). Moreover the reliable market scotch in centimeives facing many advanceers argon likely to uphold excess fertilizer practise (Scott , 2005). It is comm further recognized that if eventually the bridal of market prices for most bucolic neats without any subsidies became a reality, in send to be competitive with the cut down production costs of developing countries in South America, Asia, eastwardern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, the pressure to step up even the most unit of measuremented kingdom intensive production systems go away as healthy become reality despite the negative consequences on the environment (Goulding et al, 2008).The purpose of this study is to examine the socio-economic determinants of intensity of fertiliser application in non-organic cropland farms in England using a panel data computer simulation (panel data). The quantitative and behavioural studies in gardening atomic number 18 frequently establish on the notion that the family business is managed by a virtuoso decision-maker the soul who exerts the financial and managerial book over the farm unit (Morris and Ev ans, 2004). This panorama derives from neoclassical economies and implies that decisions for the business are taken by a single entrepreneur (War and Lowe, 1994). However this study differs from much previous research into the tenderness and clarification of the technical drivers responsible for fertilizer application by including variables that consociate to both farmer characteristics and farm economic aspects. It impart be followed an parentage commonly accept in the literature that farmers tend to over- accommodate fertilizer from an agronomic perspective (i.e., more than warranted to attain a disposed(p) yield target) essentially disposed(p) the uncertainty about environmental growing conditions (Sheriff, 1995 Scott, 2005). ( bind mainly N). up to now the author leave have in mind that the fertilizer foreplays into agricultural systems in the UNITED nation occur mainly via north (Velthof et al., 1998) with the general objective to reduce the probability of wre tched yields and moreover increase the fluctuation in profit. However, given the emergent apprehension with the impact of cultivation on environment and society, there has been a growing deficiency to develop a more comprehensive definition of agriculture productivity (Pretty, 1998 Defra, 2002).Although regimen policies will not be addressed or recommended specifically, the author hopes to open a new channel for discussion. As Annan (2005) argues it is imperative to aim at a reasonable balance betwixt the take of technical detail and the approachability of meaningful data describing future development of new and improved categories of abatement options. Consequently contributing to reach the 10per cent inorganic fertilizer step-down by 2020 with consequent reductions in N2O emissions (Entec, 2004), and moreover contribute to UNITED solid ground reach the overall matter target of 80per cent GHG reduction by 2050(ADAS, 2009).(reduce emissions)Agriculture and fertilizerAgric ulture is oneness of the most successful sectors in terms of productivity growth, has outpaced the rapid growth in demand for its sidetrack for the past decades (Shaink el al, 2002). (agri success). This trend has provided hefty social benefits, such as increased the accessibility of agricultural goods unremarkably at a lower price, provision of jobs and therefore rural sustainability, energy and also dictatorial environmental do, such as aesthetic value, carbon sequestration by malicious gossips and trees, and new(prenominal) additional benefits that are linked with good husbandry such as maintenance of natural habitats and countryside landscape (Shaink et al,2002 Scott, 2005) (social benefits / positive extern). However, is more often than not referenced in literature that the increased use of chemicals either fertilisers or pesticides in agriculture intensive systems is associated with hidden costs delinquent to environmental pollution in soil, pee and aura -, thence has amplified the negative social effects on the natural environment (eg. Shaink et al,2002 Scott,2005 ) (pollution1). This argument is supported by an analysis of the externalities from UNITED domain agriculture made by Hartridge and Pearce (2001), finding that negative externalities enume order to at least 1 billion, and positive externalities offset approximately one-half of these negative effects (negative/positive external).Farmers and fertilizer applicationThe main query rises once more, what are the fertilizer application determinants? For a typical farm manager, output is what matters most to the business survival and prosperity. Consequently, farmers apply fertilisers since they represent own(prenominal) benefits in the change of improved outputs and incomes, however plants absorb fertilisers just up to their necessarily only, therefore surplus fertiliser over and above the needs of plants can buzz off harmful side effects (Scott, 2005) either on the farm profit or in the environment. (more/less fert plant). A given agricultural input bundle big businessman result in huge diverse output levels according to the level at which random factors manipulate (Gallacher, 2001) (input output). Rounsevell and Reay (2009) clarify the previous argument stating that land use and therefore fertilizer application changes are driven primarily by farmer decisions, which are affected by the economic environment (output and input prices), soil features, crop and livestock yields, termliness of field operations, handiness of investment capital, subsidies as well as the socio-cultural attributes of individual farmersThe first driver is clearly an agronomic argument, since agronomists bear that crop nutrient uptake is higher(prenominal) in years with good growing conditions (Babcock, 1992), therefore if a farmer applies the optimum amount of fertilizer for mean growing conditions, and in a particular year those conditions are better than expected, there will b e too slight fertilizer and decrease in production. On other hand if support conditions are not conducive, there will be too much fertilizer (Sheriff, 2005), thus a risk-neutral farmer applies fertilizer at a higher rate as long as the expected gain in profit from the increased yield is higher than the expected loss in profit from wasted fertilizer.Another hypothesis is proposed by Rajsic and Weersink (2008). They argue that succession there may be agreement on the functional form of crop response to fertilizer, there will be differences in the optimal rate amidst locations. Numerous studies have account that the maximum economic nitrogen rate varies spatially and that the degree of variability can be substantial (Carr et al., 1991). As a consequence there is a need to analyze the spatial noveltys in order to state the yield dominance of the field and/or region, the underlying assumption is that yield potency is this instant linked to the productivity of nitrogen, so fields with higher estimated output ask in higher rates of fertilizer (Rajsic and Weersink 2008). Dai et al (1993), however, found that nitrogen and soil quality are complements, and soil quality uncertainty and nitrogen availability are linked which will increase nitrogen demand and consequently nitrogen input. Additionally Rajsic (2008), Sheriff (2005) and also Dai el al (1993) argue that one of the main causes for over-fertilisation might be related to the uncertainty about weather and soil characteristics that can lead both risk-averse and risk-neutral farmers to over-apply nutrients, therefore the decision to apply a little extra just in case is particularly capture if the cost of over-application is low compared to the cost of under application (Rajsic, 2008) (a little extra risk averse). This idea is supported by Sherriff (2005), arguing that farmers will apply more fertilizer than a crop can use due to a perception that the general recommendations are not appropriate for their individual situations. Smill (1999) argues that the application of N is fairly inefficient in most farms, since farmers are applying nitrogen at levels that exceed those suggested by either government extension services or by the optimal nitrogen weapon (Rajsic and Weersink, 2008) (N in cogency). Approximately half of Nitrogen applied during a growing gentle is typically recovered in the crop biomass throughout that season, therefore this inefficiency represents a noteworthy cost to farmers and an measurable consequences for ecosystem and human health as Nitrogen moves beyond the farm level in several aqueous or gaseous forms, such as N2O(Matson et al., 1997, 1998 Galloway, 1998).In practice evidence suggests that farmers systematically over-estimate the impact of additional nitrogen relative to agronomists models and therefore they maintain their beliefs afterward seeing results from experimental plots (SriRamaratnam et al., 1987). If farmers perceptions are incorrect, these b eliefs will lead to over-application, conversely if their aesthesia is correct, analysts may infer excess nutrient applications where none exist. Thus if weather, the semblance between fertiliser prices and output prices and soil features are not main and/or the only drivers behind fertiliser application, which characteristics does the farmer have to apply more or less fertiliser compared to those with the resembling features and constraints?The effect of fertilizers on the environmentThe relatively cheap price of Nitrogen in coition to its yield improvement benefits, and allowing farmers substantial perplexity flexibility, has been a central causative factor in determining its overuse and consequently the environmental impacts reported below.It is known that Agricultural emissions of azotic oxide have fallen by 13 per cent over the 10 years up to 2005 and the trend is go along (DEFRA, 2007).However despite this reduction in the UNITED KINGDOM and other major(ip) developed co untries, the major direct emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are from agriculture methane (CH4) caused by enteric fermentation by ruminant livestock and manure focus, and nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils (Gibbons, 2005). Additionally methane has a global warming potential 21 generation greater than carbon dioxide while nitrous oxide global warming potential (GWP) is considered 296 times that of the same mass of carbon dioxide (Houghton et al., 2001), consequently fairly abject concentrations of this gas are sufficient to induce drastic changes in the atmosphere. At current estimates N2O contributes about 7 per cent of the greenhouse gas emissions in terms of the GWP (Winiwarter, 2005). As a result, among the gases considered by the Kyoto Protocol, N2O is ranked third in importance behind carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) (Winiwarter, 2005). Seinfeld and Pandis (1998) add that N2O is a very steadfast compound in the atmosphere, with a mean lifetime of 120 years, so the emiss ions will have an effect on the global concentrations in the atmosphere for many decades. The same authors argue that N2O is able to strongly absorb unseeable light, thus it also exerts a considerable effect on the earths actinotherapy absorption. Therefore is obvious the magnitude of nitrogen fertilization emissions has a salient effect on the environment.Approximately 1per cent of the anthropogenic Nitrogen input into agricultural systems is emitted as nitrous oxide, with agriculture as a building block contributing to 66per cent of gist UNITED KINGDOM nitrous oxide emissions in 2006, 95per cent of it via direct emissions from agricultural soils (IPCC, 2006). In addition, fertiliser manufacturing is energy-intensive (Rounsevell and Reay, 2009). Carbon dioxide emissions from ammonia water production most of which is for fertiliser use made up 0.3per cent (1.6 million tonnes) of UNITED KINGDOM CO2 emissions in 2006 (DEFRA, 2006). Nitrogenous fertiliser consumption in the UNIT ED KINGDOM increased by well-nigh 300 per cent between 1961 and the late 1980s, regardless of the decline in agricultural land area (roughly 15per cent in the same time interval) indicating a large increase in application rates per unit area of land over this period (Rounsevell and Reay, 2009). As stated previously, fertiliser Nitrogen consumption gradually declined after 1990, reaching a rate of around 1.2 million tonnes per year in 2006 (DEFRA, 2008).As Smil (2000, 2001) argues, Nitrogen (N) is a key input in agriculture, therefore we cannot simply exclude or limit the application of it to meaningless values. We should instead open a new channel of discussion in order to improve or make grow new policies in an enhanced cost-efficient way that decreases damaging effects on the environment and improves farms profits. This can only be achieved if each of determinants of fertilizer application are well understood.Project scope UNITED KINGDOM agricultural featuresUNITED KINGDOM land use is still largely dominated by agriculture. In June 2008 about 77 per cent of the total land area of the UNITED KINGDOM, which represents approximately 18.8 million hectares, was used for agriculture proposes (DEFRA, 2008). This proportion is relatively large compared with the average of 50 per cent in the EU27, and 54per cent, 47per cent and 50per cent for France, Germany and Spain, respectively (Angus et al, 2009). Despite these figures, agricultures contribution to GDP and practice session in the UNITED KINGDOM is low, at about 0.5per cent and 1.8per cent respectively (DEFRA, 2009). Of this area, about 28 per cent is allocated to arable cropping, including fallow land, and 67 per cent to grassland, mostly permanent pastures, and 58 per cent (10.2 million hectares) is considered lowland, delineate as land less than 240m above sea level. (Angus et al, 2009). In England due to patterns of agricultural land constraints relative to soils and topography features, the major concen tration of grassland and livestock farm is located in the North and West, and arable farming in the East and South (Angus et al, 2009). Consequently, the largest farms in the UNITED KINGDOM are concentrated in southern and eastern England (Ward, 2000). The agricultural sector in the UNITED KINGDOM is composed of over 300,000 holdings, varying widely in size and type, employing an mixing of different farming practices and use of inputs such as soil and water as well as fertilizers, land and waste heed (DEFRA, 2009). iodine common aspect among the major countries in the EU is that the farming nation is getting older. Eurostat show in 2000 that in UNITED KINGDOM only 5.2 per cent of farmers were under 35 years old, compared to 7.4 percent in 1990. The overbearing number of under 35s had fallen over the last decade by 6,000 which represents more than one third. Over the same period, the proportion of holders with 65 years old and over had risen from 22.1per cent to 25.3per cent (D EFRA, 2007).Regarding the commandal level, between 1990 and 2005 there has been almost no change to the overall proportions, roughly iii quarters of farmers have no formal agricultural training, with the remaining 25per cent equally divided between the higher rearing levels (DEFRA, 2007). Another important point relates to the fact that 38per cent of managers of the largest farms have proper agricultural education compared to just 7 per cent on the smallest farms (DEFRA, 2007).Personal Characteristics effects on farm efficiencyIn modern agriculture there is an increase need to produce policy evaluation studies in order to be acquainted with the major drivers behind the decisions made by farmers within a socio-demographic context.Numerous studies that have identified a significant variation in the physical and financial performance achieved by farmers operating within the same economic and environmental constraints (Wilson et al, 2001Rougoor et al, 1998). Therefore, it is pertine nt to inquire the reason why this variation occurs. Kay and Edwards (1994) argue that in many occasions the variation in management is the cause of performance fluctuation (farm management). However, unlike physical factors of production (e.g. land, labour, and capital) management is not directly observable, consequently this causes difficulties to any analysis that attempts to explain the management influence on farm performance. Rougoor et al. (1998) defined management capacity into 2 components face-to-faceized feature (e.g., drives, motivations, social factors and education) and features of the decision-making process (e.g., procedures in planning, implementation and control of decisions). Moreover, it is argued that the decision-making process is obviously influenced by the link of the factors stated above, and if any of them is excluded the cause of farm efficiency variation might be incorrectly careful (Wallace, 1974 Kay and Edwards, 1994 Poggi-Varaldo, 1998Rougoor et al, 1998 Wilson et al, 2001) . Rougoor et al. (1998) highlights the argument that a manager may hold beneficial personal skills however fails to accomplish high performance due to a poor decision-making process.Previous research made by Huffman (1974) found a positive impact of human capital on allocative efficiency in agriculture. In particular, these authors argued that education diminishes the time needed to adjust to changes in production options and/or price ratios. An additional factor that might explain the farm efficiency variation is the farmers age. Burton (2009) emphasises the strength of age as an indicator since age reflects the level of experience which might be a complement or even a substitute of education. In order to demonstrate the significance of education in this subject, Lockhead et al (1981) presented a detailed survey of studies analysing the effect of farmer education on farm management efficiency using the results from 37 data sets, investigating the effect of institutional education and non-formal education. They concluded that in 31 of these data sets, institutional education was found to have a positive and significant effect, and 8 of which provided evidence that non-formal education was also importantly positively related to productivity. An additional reason for more efficient input and output combinations existence attained by more educated farmers is given by Welch (1978) and further by Gallacher (2001), both arguing that optimum substantial size is correlated with education as it relates to optimum scale of production, usually the higher education level obtained, the larger the size of the farm being managed.In this study, it will be exploit formal education as one of the explanatory causes in the possible efficiency dissimilarity between two or more farms with the same constraints, due to the difficulty in accurately measuring non-formal education. However, the author is conscious that the final outcome might be ambiguous sin ce these two forms of education are usually complements (Lockhead, 1981 Mook, 1981 Asfaw, 2004). entropy Source Farm vocation SurveyThe FBS is widely recognised as the most comprehensive and independent survey of farm incomes and provides an authoritative data source on the economic and physical performance of farm businesses in England and Wales. It is undertaken each year by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural personal matters (DEFRA) and the National Assembly for Wales (NAW). In England, the survey is conducted by a syndicate of seven FBS Research Centres Universities of Cambridge, Newcastle upon Tyne, Nottingham and Reading, and Askham Bryan, Duchy and Imperial Colleges, led by the University of Nottingham. Its members work in partnership, using uniform standard practices in reporting their findings to go over consistent data quality, accuracy and validity.The principal function of the Farm Business Survey (FBS) is to inform the UNITED KINGDOM Government and EU agricultural policy makers of the current financial state of the different sectors of UNITED KINGDOM farming. The FBS also provides full management accounting data on the agricultural activities of farm businesses, location, physical and environmental characteristics of the farm and several measures of non-agricultural activity, such as farm household characteristics.The survey uses a sample of farms that is representative of the national population of farms in terms of farm type, farm size and regional location. Since 2005/06 approximately 2400 individual farms took part in this survey of which roughly 2000 are English (the rest being from Wales). Results are compiled using accredited documents and personal interviews and written up into Farm Business Survey yyyy/yy..